A theory is an interrelation of constructs from which hypotheses are developed to explain the relationship between variables (Creswell, 2009). A general cultural relativity hypothesis proposes that perceptions are shaped through the process of socialization (Cheng, Cheung, Chio, & Chan 2013). Cheng et al. (2013) examine this relativism in their multicultural meta-analysis of the relationship between causal perceptions and negative psychological symptoms. Similarly, the research of Vauclair and Fischer (2011) demonstrates the relationship between individual attitudes and cultural context. However, their study also indicates that, although some values are divergent between societies, many other priorities are held in most cultures (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011). Another theory proposes that the evolutionary history of all humanity results in many traits that are common throughout the many diverse civilizations (Haidt, 2007). In his article, Haque (2011) argues that human moral psychology cannot be reduced to arbitrary social conventions. He concludes by noting that the dichotomy between biological and social origins is false (Haque, 2011). Often, subjective values result from the expression of inherited characteristics in the context of a dynamic environment (Haque, 2011).
The debate between theories, regarding the origin of behavioral and perceptual patterns, results from contrary definitions of the independent variable. Both evolutionary and cultural theories assign behavior as the dependent variable. The value of this dependent variable is determined by that of the causal antecedent (Creswell, 2009). Evolutionary theories attribute behavior patterns to the common human history of adaptation (Haque, 2011). In contrast, culturally relative theories assert that behavior patterns are learned through socialization (Haque, 2011). However, both theories have merit, and it is likely that their synthesis produces the most accurate representation (Haque, 2011). Intervening variables are agents that contribute to a result dependent on an independent value (Creswell, 2009). Biology and society complement each other to shape the behavior of the individual (Haque, 2011).
Benassi, Sweeney, and Dufour (1988) documented a general link between psychological stress and the perception that one has little control over events. This type of universal relationship would be consistent with evolutionary theories. However, Cheng et al. (2013) proposed that collectivist cultures would be more able to psychologically accommodate situations resulting from circumstantial conditions rather than personal motivation. Individualism and collectivism represent an interpretive dimension that functions to delineate the differences between societies (Triandis & Suh, 2002). Cultures oriented towards collectivism socialize individuals to maintain harmony throughout situational changes (Morling, Kitayama, & Miyamoto, 2002). The research of Cheng et al. (2013) integrated measures of anxiety and depression from existing research that assessed these psychological symptoms in different cultures (Cheng et al., 2013). Through statistical analysis, this study quantified the correlation between perceptions regarding the degree of personal control and the frequency of psychological distress (Cheng et al., 2013). The results indicated that collectivist values result in a decreased prevalence of depression and anxiety relative to other cultures that prioritize individuality (Cheng et al., 2013). These results support relativist assertions that perception is shaped by culture.
An artificial origin of many moral principles would result in collections of values that may be unique to a single cultural tradition (Haidt, 2007). For example, Vauclair and Fischer (2011) found that many cultures embrace different priorities that may emphasize autonomy or interdependence. These divergent attitudes result in moral systems that value personal rights while others prioritize obligations and relationships (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011). However, the existence of cultural diversity does not falsify the natural origins of morality (Haque, 2011). The excessive emphasis that is often placed on examples of diversity may ultimately threaten the validity of anthropological interpretations (Haque, 2011). Mikhail (2007) notes that, rather than refuting natural theories of emergence, diversity may indicate a systematic variation of basic principles in the context of environmental circumstances.
While the research of Vauclair and Fischer, (2011) demonstrate that some orientations are specific to a particular culture, their results also indicate that others are found universally. Because social cooperation is adaptive in most contexts, this value is common throughout various societies (Krebs, 2008). Similarly, the research of Hauser, Cushman, Young, Jin and Mikhail (2007) demonstrated a great degree of consistency across cultures in responses to some moral dilemmas. These types of moral universals exhibit little variation in the context of diverse variables (Hauser, et al., 2007). Haque (2011) demonstrates that, although some there may be some divergence in the moral systems of different cultures, morality originates from a common history of psychological evolution. Relativistic assertions that deny the significance of evolutionary history often fail to account for individual deviations from the norms prescribed by cultural orientations (Haque, 2011).
The debate regarding the origin of values is founded on an artificial opposition between genetic inheritance and developmental learning. However, these contributions are often complimentary rather than contrary (Haque, 2011). Biological processes act throughout the life history (Haque, 2011). Developmental changes are often adaptations that promote the success of an individual in an ecologically dynamic environment (Haque, 2011). This flexibility ensures the maximum functionality of the resulting individual phenotype (Haque, 2011). Behavior patterns represent an entanglement of social and biological values. Intervening variables of this type are both causally related to the effect (Creswell, 2009).
References
Benassi, V. A., Sweeney, P. D., & Dufour, C. L. (1988). Is there a relation between locus of control orientation and depression? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 357–367. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.357
Cheng, C., Cheung, S., Chio, J. H., & Chan, M. S. (2013). Cultural meaning of perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 39(1), 152-188. doi: 10.1037/a0028596
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
Haidt, J. (2007). The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science, 316, 998–1001.
Haque, O. S. (2011). Moral creationism: The science of morality and the mutiny of romantic relativism. Journal of Cognition & Culture, 11, 151-187. doi: 10.1163/156853711X568734
Hauser, M. D., Cushman, F. A., Young, L., Jin, R. and Mikhail, J. M. (2007). A dissociation between moral judgment and justiļ¬cation. Mind and Language, 22, 1-21.
Krebs, D. L. (2008). Morality: An evolutionary account. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 149–172.
Mikhail, J. (2007). Universal moral grammar: theory, evidence, and the future. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 143-152.
Morling, B., Kitayama, S., & Miyamoto, Y. (2002). Cultural practices emphasize influence in the United States and adjustment in Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 311–323. doi:10.1177/ 0146167202286003
Triandis, H. C., & Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural influences on personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 133–160. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135200
Vauclair, C., & Fischer, R. (2011). Do cultural values predict individuals’ moral attitudes? A multilevel approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 645-657. doi:10.1002/ejsp.794
Showing posts with label values. Show all posts
Showing posts with label values. Show all posts
Saturday, February 16, 2013
Wednesday, December 19, 2012
Appropriate Systemic Culture
While some moral imperatives may be universally significant, many principles are defined by the systemic culture. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Systems that embrace moral ideals can increase the frequency of positive behaviors by establishing appropriate procedures. (Zimbardo, 2007) To ensure appropriate organizational motivations, the legitimacy of the authority and culture should be continuously evaluated in the context of objective assessments. (Kilmann, Saxton, & Serpa, 1986) Effective policies are adopted when the ideology of an organization is founded on valid perceptions regarding the nature of the environment rather than illegitimate distortions of reality.
Although concepts like justice and fairness may be independent of organizational values, other principles are often established to maintain the continuity of systemic arrangements. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The culture of an organization is a representation of the essential values embraced by the hierarchical authorities. (Zimbardo, 2007) Values are the abstract motivations that guide and justify the attitudes and behaviors of an individual. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) A positive organizational culture promotes behaviors that serve the purpose of the institution. (Kilmann et al., 1986)
Systems are power structures that implement procedures in order to promote the achievement of authority motivations. (Zimbardo, 2007) An institution establishes specific procedures to generate particular situations and behaviors that are consistent with the general objectives of the organizational culture. (Zimbardo, 2007) The definitive policies of an organization include behavioral prescriptions that describe the nature of appropriate relationships within the system. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) In almost all institutions, the moral judgment of individual behaviors is relative to these systemic priorities. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011)
An organization may ensure the universal application of essential principles by emphasizing the individuality of each person. (Zimbardo, 2007) By acknowledging the intrinsic value of all subjects, the institution inhibits dehumanization through labels and stereotypes. (Zimbardo, 2007) Additionally, recognizing each person’s unique identity may prevent many moral transgressions that are enabled by de-individuation. (Zimbardo, 2007) By encouraging personal accountability, systems may elicit behaviors that are consistent with moral standards. (Zimbardo, 2007) To prevent deviations from the expectations of the organization, no person should be allowed to diffuse or defer responsibility for their actions. (Zimbardo, 2007)
An organization may promote moral and ethical standards by prioritizing the validity of authority and policy over any other ideal. Systemic principles should be founded on authentic assessments in order to create appropriate procedures. (Zimbardo, 2007) The legitimacy of the authority should be continuously measured by the degree to which the organizational priorities are consistent with objective evaluations. (Kilmann et al., 1986) A moral system should be open to continuous criticism to enable the identification of invalid motivations. (Zimbardo, 2007) By preventing the imposition of a single set of perceptions, an organization may avoid culture founded on subjective distortions of reality. (Zimbardo, 2007)
While the collective arrangement may be maintained by universal priorities of security and stability, the dominant culture defines many behavior expectations within the system. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The culture is founded on an ideology that is created by the authorities to justify the operations of the institution. (Zimbardo, 2007) In order to maintain effective policies, an organizational culture must be able to adapt to shifting conditions. (Kilmann et al., 1986) The validity of institutional procedures is increased by continuous evaluations of progress in the context of objective measures. (Kilmann et al., 1986)
References
Kilmann, R. H., Saxton, M. J., & Serpa, R. (1986) Issues in understanding and changing culture. California Management Review. 28(2), 87-94.
Vauclair, C., & Fischer, R. (2011) Do cultural values predict individuals’ moral attitudes? A cross-cultural multilevel approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 645-657. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.794
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect. Random House: New York
Although concepts like justice and fairness may be independent of organizational values, other principles are often established to maintain the continuity of systemic arrangements. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The culture of an organization is a representation of the essential values embraced by the hierarchical authorities. (Zimbardo, 2007) Values are the abstract motivations that guide and justify the attitudes and behaviors of an individual. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) A positive organizational culture promotes behaviors that serve the purpose of the institution. (Kilmann et al., 1986)
Systems are power structures that implement procedures in order to promote the achievement of authority motivations. (Zimbardo, 2007) An institution establishes specific procedures to generate particular situations and behaviors that are consistent with the general objectives of the organizational culture. (Zimbardo, 2007) The definitive policies of an organization include behavioral prescriptions that describe the nature of appropriate relationships within the system. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) In almost all institutions, the moral judgment of individual behaviors is relative to these systemic priorities. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011)
An organization may ensure the universal application of essential principles by emphasizing the individuality of each person. (Zimbardo, 2007) By acknowledging the intrinsic value of all subjects, the institution inhibits dehumanization through labels and stereotypes. (Zimbardo, 2007) Additionally, recognizing each person’s unique identity may prevent many moral transgressions that are enabled by de-individuation. (Zimbardo, 2007) By encouraging personal accountability, systems may elicit behaviors that are consistent with moral standards. (Zimbardo, 2007) To prevent deviations from the expectations of the organization, no person should be allowed to diffuse or defer responsibility for their actions. (Zimbardo, 2007)
An organization may promote moral and ethical standards by prioritizing the validity of authority and policy over any other ideal. Systemic principles should be founded on authentic assessments in order to create appropriate procedures. (Zimbardo, 2007) The legitimacy of the authority should be continuously measured by the degree to which the organizational priorities are consistent with objective evaluations. (Kilmann et al., 1986) A moral system should be open to continuous criticism to enable the identification of invalid motivations. (Zimbardo, 2007) By preventing the imposition of a single set of perceptions, an organization may avoid culture founded on subjective distortions of reality. (Zimbardo, 2007)
While the collective arrangement may be maintained by universal priorities of security and stability, the dominant culture defines many behavior expectations within the system. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The culture is founded on an ideology that is created by the authorities to justify the operations of the institution. (Zimbardo, 2007) In order to maintain effective policies, an organizational culture must be able to adapt to shifting conditions. (Kilmann et al., 1986) The validity of institutional procedures is increased by continuous evaluations of progress in the context of objective measures. (Kilmann et al., 1986)
References
Kilmann, R. H., Saxton, M. J., & Serpa, R. (1986) Issues in understanding and changing culture. California Management Review. 28(2), 87-94.
Vauclair, C., & Fischer, R. (2011) Do cultural values predict individuals’ moral attitudes? A cross-cultural multilevel approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 645-657. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.794
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect. Random House: New York
Sunday, December 16, 2012
Conformity and Submission
Systemic forces establish specific conditions to shape the perceptions and behavior of individuals. (Zimbardo, 2007) Through the process of socialization, each individual submits to cultural norms that perpetuate the order and continuity of an institution. (Williams, 2011) An individual conforms to the dominant culture through the adoption of perspectives and values that are consistent with systemic prescriptions. This socialization is promoted by the intrinsic needs of personal development as well as the constructed contingencies of an organization. (Guandong, Qinhai, Fangfei, & Lin, 2012) The cultural institution maintains control through the application of a general ideological essence in particular operating procedures. (Zimbardo, 2007)
An institution of authority functions through operating procedures that define the expectations for each subordinate. These rules secure the system against potential deviations. The organizational culture is defined by a collection of regulations that represent the abstract priorities of the hierarchical arrangement. (Zimbardo, 2007) Ideologies are normative concepts that shape the perceptions of an individual. (Skirbekk, 2010) These ideals often provide the justification for the definitive convictions and conventions of an organization. (Skirbekk, 2010) In the process of socialization, a particular value structure is imposed on individuals to generate behavior patterns that are consistent with the dominant priorities of a culture. (Skirbekk, 2010) In the context of this systemic culture, the measure of an action is relative to ideological values rather than authentic validity.
Conformity is the adoption of behaviors and attitudes that are of objective origin. (Guandong et al., 2012) Generally, people will develop perceptions that conform to those of the majority. (Zimbardo, 2007) Socialization processes often promote the internalization of cultural concepts rather than the construction of original ideas. The resulting value orientations are defined in terms of axiomatic assumptions rather than objective assessments. (Skirbekk, 2010) Within this organizational context, evaluations merely represent a comparison with cultural priorities. (Skirbekk, 2010) The systemic forces generate the convergence of individual perspectives in order to promote the continuity of specific principles and arrangements. The organization manipulates the intrinsic properties of learning to impose a particular conceptual perspective.
Natural methods of information acquisition construct meaning by interpreting experience in the context of previously derived knowledge. New sensations are understood by forming perceptual connections between present events and relevant propositions of significance. However, the subjective perceptions must be modified in response to contradictory evidence. Conformity may be motivated by rational considerations that maintain psychological consistency. (Guandong et al., 2012) This type of conformity is enables the integration of alternative knowledge and perspectives without resulting in the experience of dissonance. (Zimbardo, 2007) A learning individual alters the essence of their understanding when confronted with sufficient information that is contrary to their own ideas.
An individual may also be motivated to adopt the dominant perceptions and behavior patterns because of extrinsic or instrumental contingencies. (Guandong et al., 2012) The institution promotes submission by establishing a complex of operating consequences. (Williams, 2011) Systemic forces arrange situations that compel individuals to act in a manner consistent with organizational principles. Through sanctions and rewards, the institution controls the thoughts and behaviors of peoples to prevent deviation or revolution. (Williams, 2011)
Society is structured by norms that govern behavior within hierarchical institutions. (Williams, 2011) These norms are transmitted through the process of socialization in which each member of society is trained to appreciate and comply with expectations. (Williams, 2011) Socialization is achieved through the imposition of specific cultural values as well as the construction of compelling situational arrangements. (Guandong et al., 2012) By submitting to the values of the culture, an individual perpetuates the authority of the systemic hierarchy. (Williams, 2011) The organization maintains control by establishing ideological and physical constraints that prevent various forms of deviant individuality.
References
Guandong, S., Qinhai, M., Fangfei, W., & Lin, L. (2012). The psychological explanation of conformity. Social Behavior & Personality, 40(8), 1365-1372. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2012.40.8.1365
Skirbekk, S. N. (2010) Ideologies, myths, belief systems: Tools for analyzing cultures. Comparative Civilizations Review, 63, 7-18.
Williams, D. (2011) Why revolution ain’t easy: Violating norms, re-socializing society. Contemporary Justice Review. 14(2), 167-187. doi: 10.1080/10282580.2011.565975
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect. Random House: New York
An institution of authority functions through operating procedures that define the expectations for each subordinate. These rules secure the system against potential deviations. The organizational culture is defined by a collection of regulations that represent the abstract priorities of the hierarchical arrangement. (Zimbardo, 2007) Ideologies are normative concepts that shape the perceptions of an individual. (Skirbekk, 2010) These ideals often provide the justification for the definitive convictions and conventions of an organization. (Skirbekk, 2010) In the process of socialization, a particular value structure is imposed on individuals to generate behavior patterns that are consistent with the dominant priorities of a culture. (Skirbekk, 2010) In the context of this systemic culture, the measure of an action is relative to ideological values rather than authentic validity.
Conformity is the adoption of behaviors and attitudes that are of objective origin. (Guandong et al., 2012) Generally, people will develop perceptions that conform to those of the majority. (Zimbardo, 2007) Socialization processes often promote the internalization of cultural concepts rather than the construction of original ideas. The resulting value orientations are defined in terms of axiomatic assumptions rather than objective assessments. (Skirbekk, 2010) Within this organizational context, evaluations merely represent a comparison with cultural priorities. (Skirbekk, 2010) The systemic forces generate the convergence of individual perspectives in order to promote the continuity of specific principles and arrangements. The organization manipulates the intrinsic properties of learning to impose a particular conceptual perspective.
Natural methods of information acquisition construct meaning by interpreting experience in the context of previously derived knowledge. New sensations are understood by forming perceptual connections between present events and relevant propositions of significance. However, the subjective perceptions must be modified in response to contradictory evidence. Conformity may be motivated by rational considerations that maintain psychological consistency. (Guandong et al., 2012) This type of conformity is enables the integration of alternative knowledge and perspectives without resulting in the experience of dissonance. (Zimbardo, 2007) A learning individual alters the essence of their understanding when confronted with sufficient information that is contrary to their own ideas.
An individual may also be motivated to adopt the dominant perceptions and behavior patterns because of extrinsic or instrumental contingencies. (Guandong et al., 2012) The institution promotes submission by establishing a complex of operating consequences. (Williams, 2011) Systemic forces arrange situations that compel individuals to act in a manner consistent with organizational principles. Through sanctions and rewards, the institution controls the thoughts and behaviors of peoples to prevent deviation or revolution. (Williams, 2011)
Society is structured by norms that govern behavior within hierarchical institutions. (Williams, 2011) These norms are transmitted through the process of socialization in which each member of society is trained to appreciate and comply with expectations. (Williams, 2011) Socialization is achieved through the imposition of specific cultural values as well as the construction of compelling situational arrangements. (Guandong et al., 2012) By submitting to the values of the culture, an individual perpetuates the authority of the systemic hierarchy. (Williams, 2011) The organization maintains control by establishing ideological and physical constraints that prevent various forms of deviant individuality.
References
Guandong, S., Qinhai, M., Fangfei, W., & Lin, L. (2012). The psychological explanation of conformity. Social Behavior & Personality, 40(8), 1365-1372. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2012.40.8.1365
Skirbekk, S. N. (2010) Ideologies, myths, belief systems: Tools for analyzing cultures. Comparative Civilizations Review, 63, 7-18.
Williams, D. (2011) Why revolution ain’t easy: Violating norms, re-socializing society. Contemporary Justice Review. 14(2), 167-187. doi: 10.1080/10282580.2011.565975
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect. Random House: New York
Saturday, September 15, 2012
On Socialization
Socialization is the inheritance of cultural traits. (Lehmann, Feldman, & Kraeuffer, 2010) The transmission of culture is dependent on social interactions. (Lehmann et al., 2010) It is the responsibility of the community to socialize neophytes into mature citizens. The propagation of a society is dependent on the successful dissemination of values intrinsic to the component modes of existence. (Lehmann et al., 2010)
Socialization is the means by which a civilization maintains continuity through time. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) This is achieved by transmitting the information necessary for an individual to function in maturity. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) The obligations of each individual are defined by cultural expectations. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Incipient citizens acquire the skills and values of the predominant culture through education. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) This process proceeds both through deliberate organizational instruction as well as implicit observation of model behaviors. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p.164)
However, cultural traits would not exist without innovations. (Lehmann et al., 2010) Socialization is a bilateral process that consists of a negotiation between the new and old generations. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 165) While elders attempt to transfer the operating principles that define a society, the new generation adapts the values of the authority figures to novel innovations. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 165) This cultural innovation enables a society to accommodate environmental changes. (Lehmann et al., 2010) The rate such innovation is dependent on the complexity of the environment. (Lehmann et al., 2010)
Values are abstract motivations that explain and justify attitudes. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Moral judgments are representations of cultural values. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) While some values are found throughout all cultures, others are specific to individual civilizations. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The essential element of all social moral systems is the maintenance of cooperation. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Through cooperation, each individual benefits from the security of membership within a society. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Each member of a culture has a responsibility to ensure that the definitive values of cooperation are maintained though generations. (Lehmann et al., 2010) However, society must also allow novelty in order to enable the persistence of a culture though environmental change. (Lehmann et al., 2010)
References
Schaie, K. W., & Willis, S. L. (2002) Adult development and aging. (5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Vauclair, C., & Fischer, R., (2011) Do cultural values predict individuals’ moral attitudes? A cross-cultural multilevel approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 645-657. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.794
Lehmann, L., Feldman, M. W., & Kraeuffer (2010) Cumulative cultural dynamics and the coevolution of cultural innovation and transmission: An ESS model for panmitic and structured populations. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 23, 2356-2369. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02096.x
Socialization is the means by which a civilization maintains continuity through time. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) This is achieved by transmitting the information necessary for an individual to function in maturity. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) The obligations of each individual are defined by cultural expectations. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Incipient citizens acquire the skills and values of the predominant culture through education. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 164) This process proceeds both through deliberate organizational instruction as well as implicit observation of model behaviors. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p.164)
However, cultural traits would not exist without innovations. (Lehmann et al., 2010) Socialization is a bilateral process that consists of a negotiation between the new and old generations. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 165) While elders attempt to transfer the operating principles that define a society, the new generation adapts the values of the authority figures to novel innovations. (Schaie & Willis, 2002, p. 165) This cultural innovation enables a society to accommodate environmental changes. (Lehmann et al., 2010) The rate such innovation is dependent on the complexity of the environment. (Lehmann et al., 2010)
Values are abstract motivations that explain and justify attitudes. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Moral judgments are representations of cultural values. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) While some values are found throughout all cultures, others are specific to individual civilizations. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) The essential element of all social moral systems is the maintenance of cooperation. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Through cooperation, each individual benefits from the security of membership within a society. (Vauclair & Fischer, 2011) Each member of a culture has a responsibility to ensure that the definitive values of cooperation are maintained though generations. (Lehmann et al., 2010) However, society must also allow novelty in order to enable the persistence of a culture though environmental change. (Lehmann et al., 2010)
References
Schaie, K. W., & Willis, S. L. (2002) Adult development and aging. (5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Vauclair, C., & Fischer, R., (2011) Do cultural values predict individuals’ moral attitudes? A cross-cultural multilevel approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 645-657. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.794
Lehmann, L., Feldman, M. W., & Kraeuffer (2010) Cumulative cultural dynamics and the coevolution of cultural innovation and transmission: An ESS model for panmitic and structured populations. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 23, 2356-2369. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02096.x
Saturday, August 25, 2012
On Subjective Judgment
Judgments relating to the appropriate action in a particular situation result from an assessment of the specific conditions and consequences. A decision is formed in the interpretation of an event from the perspective of the subject’s values. General moral priorities function to prescribe imperatives in certain circumstances. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) However, the validity of any moral action is limited by the imperfect consciousness of the subject.
The confidence in a decision is proportional to the metacognitive perception of the scope of the subjective consciousness. (Koriat, 2011) However, the retrospective judgment regarding the appropriateness of an action is correlated with the degree of consensus with the subjective value system. (Koriat, 2011) Discrimination between alternative possibilities is dependent on cues that are diagnostically informative cues that indicate the validity of the various options. (Koriat, 2011) These attributes are valued based on their agreement with previous experience. (Koriat, 2011)
Perceptual phenomena are created by interpreting current sensations in the context of prior knowledge. Novel information is integrated into the subjective consciousness in reference to existing cognitive schemas. The process of conceptualization consists of sequential assessments of perceptual representations. (Koriat, 2011) The accuracy of a perception is progressively increased by successive comparisons. (Koriat, 2011) The final overt decision is a summation of approximations. (Koriat, 2011) The subjective confidence in the selection is proportional to the percentage of assessments in agreement with the subjective account. (Koriat, 2011)
A decision results from relating present information to valuations. The constructed subjective perceptions provide the significant relationship necessary to interpret sensations. This meaning is compared to valuations in order to determine the appropriate response. Values relating to minimal suffering prescribe utilitarian morals. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The categorical imperative requirement that moral actions comply with universally valid principles is founded on values relating to justice and fairness. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The particular judgment represents the perception of compliance between a selection and subjective ethical priorities.
The perception of some value, either consequential or a priori, commits the subject to a course of action that intended to produce a corresponding end. (Hills, 2008) However, this commitment is appropriate only if the end is in fact valuable. (Hills, 2008) The motivations of conduct must possess rational foundations in subjective valuations in order to be valid. (Hills, 2008) Illogical delusions of nonexistent relations will fail to produce desired results. Since the function of subjective value is dependent on rationality, moral actions must comply with deontological criteria in order to maintain consistency. (Hills, 2008)
Assessing the morality of an action is equivalent to verifying the causal relationship between the instrumental means and the intrinsically valuable end. (Hills, 2008) This assessment is limited by the imperfect subjective foresight resulting from the inaccuracy of phenomenological constructions of meaning. Only in hindsight is the subject able to obtain an objective measurement of the consequences of a moral decision. Retrospective analysis of the appropriateness of an action is a comparison between the ends obtained and those desired.
References
Hills, A. (2008) Kanitan value realism. Ratio, 21(2), 182-200
Koriat, A. (2011) Subjective confidence in perceptual judgments: a test of the self consistency model. Journal of Experiemental Psychology: General, 140(1), 117-139
Thiroux, J.P., & Krasemann, K.W. (2012) Ethics: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
The confidence in a decision is proportional to the metacognitive perception of the scope of the subjective consciousness. (Koriat, 2011) However, the retrospective judgment regarding the appropriateness of an action is correlated with the degree of consensus with the subjective value system. (Koriat, 2011) Discrimination between alternative possibilities is dependent on cues that are diagnostically informative cues that indicate the validity of the various options. (Koriat, 2011) These attributes are valued based on their agreement with previous experience. (Koriat, 2011)
Perceptual phenomena are created by interpreting current sensations in the context of prior knowledge. Novel information is integrated into the subjective consciousness in reference to existing cognitive schemas. The process of conceptualization consists of sequential assessments of perceptual representations. (Koriat, 2011) The accuracy of a perception is progressively increased by successive comparisons. (Koriat, 2011) The final overt decision is a summation of approximations. (Koriat, 2011) The subjective confidence in the selection is proportional to the percentage of assessments in agreement with the subjective account. (Koriat, 2011)
A decision results from relating present information to valuations. The constructed subjective perceptions provide the significant relationship necessary to interpret sensations. This meaning is compared to valuations in order to determine the appropriate response. Values relating to minimal suffering prescribe utilitarian morals. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The categorical imperative requirement that moral actions comply with universally valid principles is founded on values relating to justice and fairness. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The particular judgment represents the perception of compliance between a selection and subjective ethical priorities.
The perception of some value, either consequential or a priori, commits the subject to a course of action that intended to produce a corresponding end. (Hills, 2008) However, this commitment is appropriate only if the end is in fact valuable. (Hills, 2008) The motivations of conduct must possess rational foundations in subjective valuations in order to be valid. (Hills, 2008) Illogical delusions of nonexistent relations will fail to produce desired results. Since the function of subjective value is dependent on rationality, moral actions must comply with deontological criteria in order to maintain consistency. (Hills, 2008)
Assessing the morality of an action is equivalent to verifying the causal relationship between the instrumental means and the intrinsically valuable end. (Hills, 2008) This assessment is limited by the imperfect subjective foresight resulting from the inaccuracy of phenomenological constructions of meaning. Only in hindsight is the subject able to obtain an objective measurement of the consequences of a moral decision. Retrospective analysis of the appropriateness of an action is a comparison between the ends obtained and those desired.
References
Hills, A. (2008) Kanitan value realism. Ratio, 21(2), 182-200
Koriat, A. (2011) Subjective confidence in perceptual judgments: a test of the self consistency model. Journal of Experiemental Psychology: General, 140(1), 117-139
Thiroux, J.P., & Krasemann, K.W. (2012) Ethics: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
Sunday, August 12, 2012
Religious Foundations of Morality
The numerous types of moral foundations can essentially be reduced to two systems of justification, objective authority or subjective reason. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) Morality founded on authority is the result of some external source, while arguments from reason are justifications made within oneself. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) This distinction reflects the position of the subject in reference to objectivity. Since values are defined by the subjective perceptions, any objective source of morality is an invalid induction. (Millar, 2011) Religious foundations of morality make the logical error of deriving an imperative from descriptions of reality.
Accepting the cultural significance of religion does not require belief in the doctrine. Many individuals and societies have founded their moral systems on religious texts. The consequences of this are disputable. However, the validity of such a foundation is not dependent on the success of any particular context.
If the believers of a religion accept the contents of their canon as absolute truth, it would seem logical to adopt any system of morality present in the sacred documents. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) However, absolute truth must be applicable in all circumstances. This results in a contradictory consequence as the universal code must then be applied to those who do not accept the truth of the doctrine. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012)
The nature of the contradiction in religious systems of morality results from the fact that subjective perceptions are not necessarily identical to objective reality. (Millar, 2011) The subject constructs perceptions to interpret the meaning of sensory experience. (Flood, 2010) However, this empirical influence on knowledge does not guarantee any truth in the subjective account, as the sensory experience is defined by properties of the subject as well as the object. (Millar, 2011) When constructing the phenomenological account, the subject projects attributes onto objectivity that are really only artifacts of sensory physiology. (Flood, 2010)
The only rational conclusion of this relationship is the nihilistic reduction of supposed objective truth knowledge to mere functional propositions. (Millar, 2011) This epistemic limitation prevents pure subjective consciousness of any absolute truth. (Millar, 2011) Any description of objectivity is only an account of the subjective experience. (Flood, 2010) Meaningful prescriptions must be rationally constructed by the subject and then compared to experience in order to verify accuracy. (Millar, 2011) This unidirectional consciousness is invalid if reversed in the opposite function. (Millar, 2011)
To interpret meaning in reality, the subject must rationally create a universal principle that is then deductively applied to particular situations. (Millar, 2011) There is no rational inductive derivative of universal concepts from isolated examples since it is not possible to verify every instance of the rule’s application. Deductive reasoning can be improved through correction in response to error as in the scientific method of verification. (Millar, 2011) Induction is hopelessly trapped in the antecedence of any individual event. (Millar, 2011)
Religious foundations of morality are always flawed since the induction of a universal principle from a particular example is an invalid derivation of a prescriptive imperative from a descriptive interpretation. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) Morals are rules of conduct that function to satisfy subjective valuations. Justifying values based on any objective source claims that the perception is equivalent to the object. However, since consciousness is a reference between the subject and the object, the object is unknowable in itself. (Millar, 2011) The only valid foundation of morality is one that can be arrived at through reason. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The valuations and perceptions that justify a moral system can be assessed in reference to objectivity only if they are defined by the subject. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) Such functional comparisons are not possible if the subject accepts some authority as the absolute source of truth. (Millar, 2011)
References
Thiroux, J.P., & Krasemann, K.W. (2012) Ethics: Theory and practice, Eleventh Edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
Flood, A. (2010) Understanding phenomenology. Nurse Researcher, 17(2), 7-15
Millar, B. (2011) Sensory phenomenology and perceptual content. The Philosophical Quarterly, 61(244), 558-576
Accepting the cultural significance of religion does not require belief in the doctrine. Many individuals and societies have founded their moral systems on religious texts. The consequences of this are disputable. However, the validity of such a foundation is not dependent on the success of any particular context.
If the believers of a religion accept the contents of their canon as absolute truth, it would seem logical to adopt any system of morality present in the sacred documents. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) However, absolute truth must be applicable in all circumstances. This results in a contradictory consequence as the universal code must then be applied to those who do not accept the truth of the doctrine. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012)
The nature of the contradiction in religious systems of morality results from the fact that subjective perceptions are not necessarily identical to objective reality. (Millar, 2011) The subject constructs perceptions to interpret the meaning of sensory experience. (Flood, 2010) However, this empirical influence on knowledge does not guarantee any truth in the subjective account, as the sensory experience is defined by properties of the subject as well as the object. (Millar, 2011) When constructing the phenomenological account, the subject projects attributes onto objectivity that are really only artifacts of sensory physiology. (Flood, 2010)
The only rational conclusion of this relationship is the nihilistic reduction of supposed objective truth knowledge to mere functional propositions. (Millar, 2011) This epistemic limitation prevents pure subjective consciousness of any absolute truth. (Millar, 2011) Any description of objectivity is only an account of the subjective experience. (Flood, 2010) Meaningful prescriptions must be rationally constructed by the subject and then compared to experience in order to verify accuracy. (Millar, 2011) This unidirectional consciousness is invalid if reversed in the opposite function. (Millar, 2011)
To interpret meaning in reality, the subject must rationally create a universal principle that is then deductively applied to particular situations. (Millar, 2011) There is no rational inductive derivative of universal concepts from isolated examples since it is not possible to verify every instance of the rule’s application. Deductive reasoning can be improved through correction in response to error as in the scientific method of verification. (Millar, 2011) Induction is hopelessly trapped in the antecedence of any individual event. (Millar, 2011)
Religious foundations of morality are always flawed since the induction of a universal principle from a particular example is an invalid derivation of a prescriptive imperative from a descriptive interpretation. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) Morals are rules of conduct that function to satisfy subjective valuations. Justifying values based on any objective source claims that the perception is equivalent to the object. However, since consciousness is a reference between the subject and the object, the object is unknowable in itself. (Millar, 2011) The only valid foundation of morality is one that can be arrived at through reason. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) The valuations and perceptions that justify a moral system can be assessed in reference to objectivity only if they are defined by the subject. (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012) Such functional comparisons are not possible if the subject accepts some authority as the absolute source of truth. (Millar, 2011)
References
Thiroux, J.P., & Krasemann, K.W. (2012) Ethics: Theory and practice, Eleventh Edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
Flood, A. (2010) Understanding phenomenology. Nurse Researcher, 17(2), 7-15
Millar, B. (2011) Sensory phenomenology and perceptual content. The Philosophical Quarterly, 61(244), 558-576
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