Meta-Analysis and Post-Modernism

The paradigms that characterize particular academic disciplines often orient research towards a style of design (Creswell, 2009). While all research contains both quantitative and qualitative elements, most studies emphasize one approach more than the other (Creswell, 2009). These research designs are not dichotomous opposites (Creswell, 2009). Rather, quantitative and qualitative designs represent the extremes of a continuum of possibilities (Creswell, 2009). For example, in mixed methods research, qualitative and quantitative forms are combined in tandem to strengthen any conclusions beyond the capability of a limited design (Creswell, 2009). By embracing a variety of assessment types, a mixed methodology transcends the limitations of a single research paradigm. However, a research design must be valid in the context of the specific problem. Researchers must justify the design of their study by demonstrating the functionality of selected means (Creswell, 2009).

Qualitative research is consistent with orientations are more concerned the exploration of meanings or the generation of change (Creswell, 2009). Constructivism is one such type of paradigm that focuses on the subjective interpretation of meaning (Creswell, 2009). Rather than test the validity of a perception, constructivist research explores the variety of subjective concepts and often attempts to describe the diverse interpretations of individuals. Other orientations toward advocacy emphasize collaborative participation to generate positive change (Creswell, 2009). This type of research attempts to understand a problem and identify the most appropriate means with which the conditions may be improved for individuals. Because of these exploratory functions, qualitative research tends to examine open ended questions (Creswell, 2009). Rather than adhere to a specific research design, qualitative studies must continuously develop in the context of the situation (Creswell, 2009). This ensures that the methods and interpretations are appropriate for the situation (Creswell, 2009). In qualitative research, themes are inductively interpreted from data gathered in an emerging design (Creswell, 2009). However, although this type of study may produce information that accurately represents a particular situation, the validity of any generalizations is limited because of the specificity of collected data.

In contrast, quantitative studies typically attempt to evaluate objective theories through deductive tests of specific hypotheses (Creswell, 2009). This type of research is often scientifically oriented. Postpositivism is one such type of orientation that emphasizes the empirical examination of relationships between variables (Creswell, 2009). From the postpositivist perspective, validity is defined as the degree to which perceptions are consistent with objectivity. Valid theories accurately represent the nature of a relationship between variables. Similarly, pragmatism is another paradigm that often emphasizes quantitative research (Creswell, 2009). Pragmatist research derives conclusions from functional applications of a theory (Creswell, 2009). Functional theories are the foundation for hypotheses that accurately predict the consequences of specific events. In quantitative research, the resulting measurements are interpreted through statistical analysis to enable conclusions regarding the hypothesis (Creswell, 2009). While this research design may generate conclusions regarding the validity of a theory in a particular case, it does little to explore the diverse possibilities of meanings and perceptions regarding a situation.

Meta-analysis is one type of quantitative design that integrates information from multiple sources (Whiston & Li, 2011). In this type of research, empirical information is interpreted through the statistical analysis of existing studies (Whiston & Li, 2011). The meta-analytic research of Cheng, Cheung, Chio and Chan (2013) collected data regarding psychological symptoms from a variety of prior studies. This study examined the relationship between locus of control and symptoms of depression and anxiety in order to quantify the effect of cultural orientations (Cheng et al., 2013). Their conclusions represent a quantitative interpretation of 152 studies including 33,224 individuals total (Cheng et al., 2013). While meta-analysis is an appropriate means with which to assess the validity of a theory across a large sample of the population, the degree to which particular cases are accurately represented in the study is reduced by the lack of depth in this type of data collection.

Specific operational definitions are established to select relevant information that is then coded into a system of calculations to generate a numeric value (Whiston & Li, 2011). These definitions are directly related to the variables that constitute a hypothesis of a relationship. Locus of control refers to a subjective perception regarding the causal origin of occurrences (Cheng et al., 2013). Rotter (1966) explained that the cultural norms in individualist societies emphasize independence and self reliance. In contrast, Bond and Smith (1996) describe the values of interdependence and harmony that are prioritized in collectivist societies. Because individuals in collectivist cultures are socialized to accommodate changes rather than resist them, as described by Morling, Kitayama, and Miyamoto (2002), Cheng et al (2013) predict that these societies will exhibit symptoms of depression and anxiety at a reduced frequency compared to individualist cultures.

Cheng et al. (2013) noted that individuals within collectivist cultures may be more prepared to endorse an external locus of control. Their hypothesis proposes that the relationship between locus of control and negative psychological symptoms is stronger in individualist societies. Their data analysis indicated that perceptions of an external locus of control are moderately related to symptoms of depression and anxiety (Cheng et al., 2013). This relationship was stronger in societies that are oriented toward individualism (Cheng et al., 2013). The results of their meta-analysis are consistent with the hypothetical relationship between cultural orientations and psychological symptoms (Cheng et al., 2013).

References

Bond, M. H., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Cross-cultural social and organizational psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 205–235. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.205

Cheng, C., Cheung, S., Chio, J. H., & Chan, M. S. (2013). Cultural meaning of perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 39(1), 152-188. doi: 10.1037/a0028596

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.

Morling, B., Kitayama, S., & Miyamoto, Y. (2002). Cultural practices emphasize influence in the United States and adjustment in Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 311–323. doi:10.1177/ 0146167202286003

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28. doi:10.1037/h0092976

Whiston, S. C., & Li P. (2011). Meta-analysis: A systemic model for synthesizing counseling research. Journal of Counseling & Development. 89(3), 273-281.

Cognitive Dissonance and Learning

Cognitive dissonance represents an inconsistency between the actions and beliefs of an individual. (Zimbardo, 2007) Self consciousness is a perceptual representation of the properties of oneself. The concept of cognitive consistency is only valid in relation to propositions regarding the state of affairs. (Gawronski, 2012) Such propositions are often invalidated in comparison with experience. Since any perception is a necessarily imperfect representation of reality, a degree of discrepancy is always present between objectivity and conscious manifestations. This state of tension often initiates changes intended to increase the degree of perceptual coherence. (Zimbardo, 2007) The accuracy of knowledge is improved by alterations that accommodate conflicting information. This process represents the continuous development of artificial concepts that enable meaningful interpretations of existence.

Like all perceptions, self concepts are perpetually incomplete summaries of actual properties. (Gawronski, 2012) The intrinsic limitations of consciousness enable attention to only the salient features of objectivity. Like all types of learning, self discovery is the interpretation of sensory experiences in order to derive meaning. A perceptual representation is constructed by integrating new information within the perspective of one’s personal history. Although the artificial concepts prescribe behavior and expectations, the imperfect nature of understanding prevents absolute consciousness. Subjective constructs must remain modifiable to learn from experience and increase the validity of behavioral responses. (Gawronski, 2012)

People generally attempt to maintain consistent perceptual representations. (Fointat, Somat, & Grosbras, 2011) This sense of coherence is threatened when salient conflicts arise between the essential definitions and sensory manifestations of objectivity. (Fointat et al., 2011) Behavior that is not motivated by conscious inclinations questions the validity of a person’s self concept. (Beauvois, Joule, & Brunetti, 1993) Stability and security are threatened by the uncertainty resulting from experiences that are contrary previously constructed knowledge. This experience of inconsistency arouses an aversive psychological state. (Fointat et al., 2011) However, the modification of perceptions enables the integration of new empirical information into the existing perspective of an individual.

Rationalization is one method of reducing the experience of dissonance by explaining the discrepancy between moral ideals and behavior. (Zimbardo, 2007) Rather than modify previously constructed theories, an individual preserves consistency by creating ad hoc considerations. (Beauvois et al., 1993) This subjective justification of previous perceptual problems creates coherence by modifying the representative concept or producing new behaviors that demonstrate a commitment to an essential principle. (Beauvois et al., 1993) Although rationalizations accommodate novelty, altering the essence of a perception to integrate new information is more appropriate than repeatedly adding supplementary stipulations. Theories that are contradicted by objectivity do not inform valid actions. Abandonment or further analysis is the most appropriate response to the failed verification of a subjective concept.

Inconsistency is often an epistemic indicator of errors in a person’s system of beliefs. (Gawronski, 2012) Dissonance represents an illogical relationship between a theory and an experience. (Gawronski, 2012) In this situation an individual must reassess and revise beliefs in order to maintain the rational function of perceptions. (Gawronski, 2012) Learning is the process of increasing the representation of existence within the subjective consciousness. The continuous modification of perceptions enables the generation of behaviors that are increasingly appropriate to the objective context. (Gawronski, 2012) Valid self concepts are founded on behavioral manifestations. Idealized notions that must continuously contort in order to account for deviations are not pragmatic principles. Meaningful perceptions that inform actions do not include irrelevant or false content. The authenticity of conscious representations is increased through the elimination of superfluous beliefs of insignificant consequence. While an individual may attempt to approximate some valued state, this directed development is only inhibited by false assessments and denial. Appropriate changes and actions are founded on serious appraisals of one’s characteristics and behavior patterns.

Cognitive dissonance results from actions that are opposed to a person’s attitudes and motivations. (Zimbardo, 2007) Perceptual consistency is restored through modifications to behavior or perceptions. (Fointat et al., 2011) While behavioral changes may validate existing concepts, the scope of consciousness is increased by the assimilation of new experiences. A person may choose to change themselves in order to develop desired attributes. However, inaccurate perceptions often produce inappropriate behavioral responses. Understanding is founded on authentic information regarding the state of affairs. Cognitive dissonance is an inescapable symptom of the endless potential for new learning.

References

Beauvois, J., Joule, R., & Brunetti, F. (1993) Cognitive rationalization and act rationalization in an escalation of commitment. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14(1), 1-17.

Fointat, V., Somat, A., & Grosbras, J. (2011). Saying, but not doing: induced hypocrisy, trivialization, and misattribution. Social Behavior and Personality, 39(4), 465-476. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2011.39.4.465

Gawronski, B. (2012) Back to the future of dissonance theory: Cognitive consistency as a core motive. Social Cognition, 30(6), 652-668. doi: 10.1521/soco.2012.30.6.652.

Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect. Random House: New Yo